Twenty-Five Year Trend Change in the Etiology of Pediatric Invasive Bacterial Infections in Korea, 1996–2020

Background The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has contributed to the change in the epidemiology of many infectious diseases. This study aimed to establish the pre-pandemic epidemiology of pediatric invasive bacterial infection (IBI). Methods A retrospective multicenter-based surveillance for pediatric IBIs has been maintained from 1996 to 2020 in Korea. IBIs caused by eight bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella species) in immunocompetent children > 3 months of age were collected at 29 centers. The annual trend in the proportion of IBIs by each pathogen was analyzed. Results A total of 2,195 episodes were identified during the 25-year period between 1996 and 2020. S. pneumoniae (42.4%), S. aureus (22.1%), and Salmonella species (21.0%) were common in children 3 to 59 months of age. In children ≥ 5 years of age, S. aureus (58.1%), followed by Salmonella species (14.8%) and S. pneumoniae (12.2%) were common. Excluding the year 2020, there was a trend toward a decrease in the relative proportions of S. pneumoniae (rs = −0.430, P = 0.036), H. influenzae (rs = −0.922, P < 0.001), while trend toward an increase in the relative proportion of S. aureus (rs = 0.850, P < 0.001), S. agalactiae (rs = 0.615, P = 0.001), and S. pyogenes (rs = 0.554, P = 0.005). Conclusion In the proportion of IBIs over a 24-year period between 1996 and 2019, we observed a decreasing trend for S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae and an increasing trend for S. aureus, S. agalactiae, and S. pyogenes in children > 3 months of age. These findings can be used as the baseline data to navigate the trend in the epidemiology of pediatric IBI in the post COVID-19 era. Graphical

Necessity of mandatory postoperative intensive care unit management after clipping surgery for unruptured intracranial aneurysms.

OBJECTIVE: Many neurosurgeons routinely perform postoperative intensive care unit (ICU) management after clipping of unruptured intracranial aneurysms (UIAs). However, whether routine postoperative ICU care is necessary remains a clinical question. Therefore, we investigated which factors acted as risk factors that actually required ICU care after microsurgical clipping of unruptured aneurysms. METHODS: We included a total of 532 patients who underwent clipping surgery for UIA between January 2020 and December 2020. The patients were divided into two groups: those who really required ICU care (41 patients, 7.7%) and those who did not (491 patients, 92.3%). A backward stepwise logistic regression model was used to identify factors that were independently associated with ICU care requirement. RESULTS: The mean hospital stay duration and the operation time were significantly longer in the ICU requirement group than in the no ICU requirement group (9.9 ± 10.7 vs. 6.3 ± 3.7 days, p = 0.041), (259.9 ± 128.4 vs. 210.5 ± 46.1 min, p = 0.019). The transfusion rate was significantly higher (p = 0.024) in the ICU requirement group. Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified male sex (odds ratio [OR], 2.34; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.15-4.76; p = 0.0195), operation time (OR, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.00-1.01; p = 0.0022), and transfusion (OR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.00-5.51; p = 0.0500) as independent risk factors for requiring ICU care after clipping. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative ICU management may not be mandatory after clipping surgery for UIAs. Our results suggest that postoperative ICU management may be more required in the male sex, patients with longer operation times, and those who received a transfusion.

Twenty-Five Year Trend Change in the Etiology of Pediatric Invasive Bacterial Infections in Korea, 1996-2020.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has contributed to the change in the epidemiology of many infectious diseases. This study aimed to establish the pre-pandemic epidemiology of pediatric invasive bacterial infection (IBI). METHODS: A retrospective multicenter-based surveillance for pediatric IBIs has been maintained from 1996 to 2020 in Korea. IBIs caused by eight bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella species) in immunocompetent children > 3 months of age were collected at 29 centers. The annual trend in the proportion of IBIs by each pathogen was analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 2,195 episodes were identified during the 25-year period between 1996 and 2020. S. pneumoniae (42.4%), S. aureus (22.1%), and Salmonella species (21.0%) were common in children 3 to 59 months of age. In children ≥ 5 years of age, S. aureus (58.1%), followed by Salmonella species (14.8%) and S. pneumoniae (12.2%) were common. Excluding the year 2020, there was a trend toward a decrease in the relative proportions of S. pneumoniae (rs = -0.430, P = 0.036), H. influenzae (rs = -0.922, P < 0.001), while trend toward an increase in the relative proportion of S. aureus (rs = 0.850, P < 0.001), S. agalactiae (rs = 0.615, P = 0.001), and S. pyogenes (rs = 0.554, P = 0.005). CONCLUSION: In the proportion of IBIs over a 24-year period between 1996 and 2019, we observed a decreasing trend for S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae and an increasing trend for S. aureus, S. agalactiae, and S. pyogenes in children > 3 months of age. These findings can be used as the baseline data to navigate the trend in the epidemiology of pediatric IBI in the post COVID-19 era.

The Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Children During Early COVID-19 Pandemic in Korea: A Nationwide, Population-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is often asymptomatic and associated with mild clinical symptoms in children. Social distancing measures have led to a relatively small number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in Korea than in other countries in the earlier pandemic phase. Previous seroprevalence studies in Korean adults before the introduction of COVID-19 vaccination campaign have shown a low antibody positivity rate. However, data on COVID-19 seroprevalence in Korean children remained scarce. In this study, we assessed the seroprevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in children in Korea. METHODS: Between December 2020 and March 2021, stratified serum samples were collected from children aged 0-18 years in 17 different regions across the country. The SARS-CoV-2 antibody test was conducted using an electro-chemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA) to detect the antibodies against nucleocapsid antigens of SARS-CoV-2. Samples that tested positive using the ECLIA were reflexed to an additional plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for SARS-CoV-2. RESULTS: A total of 1,887 samples were collected. Excluding 21 samples collected from regional medical centers, 1,866 samples were included in the final analysis. Two samples (0.11%) were positive for the antibodies against nucleocapsid antigens of SARS-CoV-2. Both samples were shown to have neutralizing antibodies for SARS-CoV-2 via PRNT. CONCLUSION: After 1 year since the start of COVID-19 pandemic, the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among Korean children was 0.11%, which was lower than the adults (0.52%) in another study conducted during a similar period. In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Korea was lower than those of other countries, which was presumed to be the consequence of a very strong social distancing measures.

Developing a Framework for Pandemic COVID-19 Vaccine Allocation: a Modified Delphi Consensus Study in Korea.

BACKGROUND: This study presents a framework for determining the allocation and distribution of the limited amount of vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). METHODS: After analyzing the pandemic strategies of the major organizations and countries and with a literature review conducted by a core panel, a modified Delphi survey was administered to 13 experts in the fields of vaccination, infectious disease, and public health in the Republic of Korea. The following topics were discussed: 1) identifying the objectives of the vaccination strategy, 2) identifying allocation criteria, and 3) establishing a step-by-step vaccination framework and prioritization strategy based on the allocation criteria. Two rounds of surveys were conducted for each topic, with a structured questionnaire provided via e-mail in the first round. After analyzing the responses, a meeting with the experts was held to obtain consensus on how to prioritize the population groups. RESULTS: The first objective of the vaccination strategy was maintenance of the integrity of the healthcare system and critical infrastructure, followed by reduction of morbidity and mortality and reduction of community transmission. In the initial phase, older adult residents in care homes, high-risk health and social care workers, and personal support workers who work in direct contact with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients would be prioritized. Expansion of vaccine supply would allow immunization of older adults not included in phase 1, followed by healthcare workers not previously included and individuals with comorbidities. Further widespread vaccine supply would ensure availability to the extended adult age groups (50-64 years old), critical workers outside the health sector, residents who cannot socially distance, and, eventually, the remaining populations. CONCLUSION: This survey provides the much needed insight into the decision-making process for vaccine allocation at the national level. However, flexibility in adapting to strategies will be essential, as new information is constantly emerging.

Clinical Characteristics and Viral RNA Detection in Children With Coronavirus Disease 2019 in the Republic of Korea.

Importance: There is limited information describing the full spectrum of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the duration of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA detection in children. Objective: To analyze the full clinical course and the duration of SARS-CoV-2 RNA detectability in children confirmed with COVID-19 in the Republic of Korea, where rigorous public health interventions have been implemented. Design, Setting, and Participants: This case series of children with COVID-19 was conducted in 20 hospitals and 2 nonhospital isolation facilities across the country from February 18, 2020, to March 31, 2020. Children younger than 19 years who had COVID-19 were included. Exposures: Confirmed COVID-19, detected via SARS-CoV-2 RNA in a combined nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swab or sputum by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Main Outcomes and Measures: Clinical manifestations during the observation period, including the time and duration of symptom occurrence. The duration of SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection was also analyzed. Results: A total of 91 children with COVID-19 were included (median [range] age, 11 [0-18] years; 53 boys [58%]). Twenty children (22%) were asymptomatic during the entire observation period. Among 71 symptomatic cases, 47 children (66%) had unrecognized symptoms before diagnosis, 18 (25%) developed symptoms after diagnosis, and only 6 (9%) were diagnosed at the time of symptom onset. Twenty-two children (24%) had lower respiratory tract infections. The mean (SD) duration of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in upper respiratory samples was 17.6 (6.7) days. Virus RNA was detected for a mean (SD) of 14.1 (7.7) days in asymptomatic individuals. There was no difference in the duration of virus RNA detection between children with upper respiratory tract infections and lower respiratory tract infections (mean [SD], 18.7 [5.8] days vs 19.9 [5.6] days; P = .54). Fourteen children (15%) were treated with lopinavir-ritonavir and/or hydroxychloroquine. All recovered, without any fatal cases. Conclusions and Relevance: In this case series study, inapparent infections in children may have been associated with silent COVID-19 transmission in the community. Heightened surveillance using laboratory screening will allow detection in children with unrecognized SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Role of children in household transmission of COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: Transmissibility of COVID-19 by children in the household is not clear. Herein, we describe children's role in household transmission of COVID-19. DESIGN AND SETTING: All paediatric COVID-19 index cases and their household members reported from 20 January to 6 April 2020 in South Korea were reviewed. The secondary attack rate (SAR) from child index case to household secondary case was calculated. Epidemiological and clinical findings of child index case-household secondary case pair was assessed. RESULTS: A total of 107 paediatric COVID-19 index cases and 248 of their household members were identified. One pair of paediatric index-secondary household case was identified, giving a household SAR of 0.5% (95% CI 0.0% to 2.6%). The index case was self-quarantined at home after international travel, stayed in her room, but shared a meal table with the secondary case. CONCLUSION: The SAR from children to household members was low in the setting of social distancing, underscoring the importance of rigorous contact tracing and early isolation in limiting transmission within households.

Financial Burden of Hospitalization of Children with Coronavirus Disease 2019 under the National Health Insurance Service in Korea.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has resulted in an ongoing pandemic; however, the socioeconomic burden of COVID-19 treatment in the pediatric population remains unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the hospitalization periods and medical costs among children with COVID-19. In total, 145 billing statements for pediatric patients receiving healthcare services because of COVID-19 from February 1, 2020 to March 31, 2020 were used. The study showed that individual treatment costs for children with COVID-19 are approximately USD 2,192 under the Korean National Health Insurance Service System. This study revealed the differences in cost among age groups, determined by the type of hospital wherein admission occurred, as a trend of increasing age, increasing hospitalization time, and increasing cost was observed. Tailored COVID-19 treatment strategies by age group may lower costs and increase the effectiveness of resource allocation.